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(allowing replacement of fish oil in feeds with vegetable oils), sterile animals and the use of fish eggs as bioreactors in the production of pharmaceuticals. In the United States, genetically modified (GM) Atlantic salmon, containing a growth hormone gene from a Pacific salmon species that allows the salmon to grow to market size in half the normal time is currently under consideration for approval by the Federal Drug Administration (FDA)192. Challenges for the use of transgenic approaches in marine aquaculture include the rapid development of embryos that mean that it is difficult to treat many and the low survival rates of fish larvae. In the EU, the high level of public concern about GM technology might be expected to lead to consumer resistance for transgenic fish193. The current policy of the Federation of European Aquaculture Producers (which represents more than 80% of European finfish production) is currently one of not using GM organisms. As a result, it is unlikely that GM fish will be used in the EU in the near future194. Surrogate broodstock technologies The aim of these approaches has been to produce species or strains from surrogate parents, particularly where those parents may be easier to manage. For example, there is interest in the potential to produce bluefin tuna using mackerel tuna broodstock that are smaller and can be held in cages more easily195. Further applications of the technology include producing endangered species and strains from material held in gene banks. To date the technology has been applied almost exclusively to freshwater species that have larger embryos and simpler life histories. The main products will be seed and eggs. With the exception of the animal health aspects, the main focus within the aquaculture sector is on fish and molluscs as sources of raw material for biotechnology although there is some ‘green to blue’ sourcing, e.g. in transgenic approaches. Landscape of Marine Biotechnology infrastructures and technologies in the aquaculture sector One of the important features of the marine biotechnology infrastructure for the aquaculture sector is that it differs for the different species being cultured and the industry configuration for these. There are important differences between salmon aquaculture and that for other finfish or shellfish species. Salmon aquaculture is characterised by increasingly integrated and consolidated companies that are global in the scope of their operations, developing differentiated products across their production facilities, e.g. niche organic salmon from Ireland and high volume products from operations in Chile. By contrast, many of the EU shellfish culture activities are smaller operations, many family run businesses. The scope for, and scale of, returns from investments in biotechnology therefore differs across culture operations. Selective breeding programmes and feed development are some of the most costly research and development activities in aquaculture. As a result, there tends to be specialisation and concentration. This can be seen from the fact that the feed industry for fin-fish is dominated by three firms (Skretting, Ewos and Biomar.) while production of salmon and trout eggs has also been concentrated in the hands of a small number of specialist producers with global outreach, e.g. Salmobreed, Landcatch Natural Selection and Aquagen. There is also interest in the wider biotechnology industry in the potential of Blue Biotechnology applications. In 2008 world’s leading poultry genetic holding company, Erich Wesjohann Group GmbH (EW Group) purchased a majority holding in AquaGen, a leading selective breeding company. EW Group went on in 2013 to also buy stakes in Skretting (a feed manufacturer) and Marine Harvest (salmon producers), illustrating the 192 OECD 2013 193 e.g. Bostock et al. (2010) 194 Consensus (2008) Towards sustainable aquaculture in Europe. Consensus Partnership. 195 e.g. Lioka C., Kani, K., and Nhhala, H. (2000) Present status and prospects of technical development of tuna sea farming. Recent advances in Mediterranean aquaculture finfish species diversification. CIHEAM, p. 275-285 Study in support of Impact Assessment work on Blue Biotechnology 149

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